October 2012
abstract
Responsabilité & Environnement
La biodiversité
Issue editor:
Claire TUTENUIT
Issue 68
Editorial
By Pierre COUVEINHES
Rédacteur en chef des Annales des Mines
1. Factors, issues and economic aspects
What is biodiversity? What are the factors of attrition?
By Gilles BOEUF
Président du Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris ; Professeur à l’Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Laboratoire Arago, UPMC/CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Banyuls-sur-Mer
In line with the resolution adopted in June 2002 at the Earth Summit in Johannesburg, the United Nations declared 2010 to be the international year of biodiversity. The resolution provided for curbing or even stopping(!) the attrition of biodiversity by 2010. All observations, starting with those reported at the Paris UNESCO conference in January 2010, provide evidence that the situation is more disturbing than ever.
Biodiversity and sustainable development: The stakes in "environmental recapitalization"
By Bernard CHEVASSUS-AU-LOUIS
Inspecteur général de l’Agriculture, membre de l’Académie des technologies
The linkage between biodiversity and sustainable development is often seen from a short-term perspective with the goal of finding in the realm of living organisms resources for new products (biofuel, genetic resources, new drugs) so as to lift the limits on currently used resources. During the 20th century, the exploitation of natural resources drawn from biodiversity was grounded on three beliefs, which we now realize are erroneous: such resources cannot be depleted, they are free, and we can gradually reduce our dependence on them. To avoid dispelling illusions in the future, different principles should be worked out for the uses to which biodiversity is put. In particular, we should adopt new performance criteria and conceptions of innovation. Reflexion on the three types of “capital” — environmental, economic and human — related to sustainable development leads to formulating an ambitious political goal far beyond the mere proposal to stop depleting biodiversity. It calls for increasing our country’s "environmental capital” not as a substitution for the other two but, on the contrary, in synergy with them.
Ecosystemic services and their value
By Xavier Bonnet
Chef du service de l’Economie, de l’Evaluation et de l’Intégration du Développement durable (SEEIDD) du Commissariat général au Développement durable du ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable et de l’Energie
The rapid depletion of biodiversity owing to human behavior has stimulated thought about the economic toolbox to be used so that protecting biodiversity is compatible with development. Just as it is now widely accepted that the only way to sufficiently reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to set a price on them, questions are being asked about how to assign a value to biodiversity for the sake of protecting it. This issue turns out to be more complicated than the question of greenhouse gases…
Is taxation related to biodiversity?
By Guillaume SAINTENY
Maître de conférences à l’Ecole Polytechnique
Although taxes have been passed in several environmental fields (energy, transportation, climate, wastes, etc.), tax policy has hardly been used in biodiversity, whether at the international, European, national or local levels. In fact, there are no taxes on the depletion of biodiversity. Fiscal measures have been adopted over time without taking into account biodiversity. This especially holds for France. The French tax system’s overall structure is disadvantageous for the conservation of biodiversity. This holds for estate, local and municipal taxes as well as taxes on the water supply.
The national strategy for biodiversity
By Odile GAUTHIER
Directrice de l’Eau et de la Biodiversité au ministère de l’Ecologie, du Développement durable et de l’Energie
France’s approach to protecting biodiversity is described from the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity till the second national strategy adopted in May 2011. The participation of stakeholders is examined as well as the mobilization in 2011 in view of advancing into a new phase when all decision-makers will be aware of the issue of biodiversity.
The national strategy for biodiversity: Progress toward pluralism and the diversity of collective decision-making
By Michel JUFFÉ
Philosophe, ancien conseiller du Vice-président du Conseil général de l’Environnement et du Développement durable, Vice-président du conseil scientifique de l’Association Française pour la Prévention des Catastrophes Naturelles (AFPCN)
Nietzsche, who had read Darwin, argued in favor of diversity in the human species, as Claude Lévi-Strauss would do seventy years later in his well-known book, Race and history. While Darwin’s writings often alluded to the necessary diversity of "organized beings”, the idea of protecting the diversity of life gradually advanced thanks to the creation of natural parks and the arguments formulated by Vladimir Vernadsky, Aldo Leopold, Jean Dorst, Stephen Jay Gould and many others. But all of them had a predecessor several hundred years ago: Montaigne, who accepted the idea that all living beings are of equal value and share the same fate. This movement did not achieve a political or legal scope till the June 1992 UN conference on the Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
2 - Agriculture, territorial development and biodiversity
Agriculture et biodiversity: Kindred prospects
By Marion GUILLOU
Présidente d’Agreenium
More than a third of cultivated plants depend on pollinating insects, such as bees, for their reproduction. In Ireland, the contribution of earthworms to the fertility of the soil amounts to 700 million euros per year. Agriculture needs biodiversity, and contributes directly to it. In areas intensely worked by mankind, the interactions of biodiversity (plants, animals or microbes) with farming and forestry are numerousand essential. To boost positive synergy, it is indispensable to plan, provide incentives and make assessments. This is one of the challenges for the public farming policies that, with economic and environmental goals, are to be worked out at the European and local levels.
The windfall from the discovery of the origin of apple trees
By Catherine PEIX
Photographe professionnelle
The secret of the origin of all apple trees is hidden in the ancestral forests of the Thian Shan mountains, where huge trees, rising over weeds and entwined in liana, abundantly produce a variety of extraordinary apples. These gems of biodiversity in the wild possess genes for resisting the major scourges afflicting cultivated apple trees. A silent tragedy is taking place in orchards. Since pesticides no longer adequately protect from massive attacks by fungus and pathologies, a frantic race is on — but lost in advance — toward using ever more pesticides dangerous for both people and the environment. Will Malus sieversii, the scientific name of the original apple tree, help us take up this challenge? Does it bear hope for growing new trees?
Bees and biodiversity
By Philippe LECOMPTE
Président fondateur du réseau Biodiversité pour les abeilles
The world has recently become aware of a worrisome trend: from 40% to 50% of bee colonies have died out in the USA and 30% in Europe (with disparity between eastern and western Europe). As is now well known, bees render immense services, above all pollination, to nature and humanity. Jacques Lecomte, a (deceased) entomologist who worked for INRA, pointed out this function, now said to be “agro-eco-systemic”, one of the three dimensions of biodiversity. Bees also serve as the sentinels of biodiversity: where they die out, other insects are also weakened. This is proof that all of biodiversity has been affected: bees are an “umbrella species”. The awareness of their usefulness and the menaces against bees has spurred research. This article addresses three major questions: a) Why are bee colonies dying out? b) To what extent does this extinction represent a threat for humanity? c) Can we stop this trend?
Agriculture and biodiversity
By Eric GIRY
Ingénieur en chef des Ponts, des Eaux et des Forêts, Chef du service de la stratégie agroalimentaire et du développement durable au sein de la direction générale des politiques agricole, agroalimentaire et des territoires au ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Agroalimentaire et de la Forêt
Avec une surface occupée à plus de 60% par des usages agricoles, pratiques agricoles et maintien de la biodiversité sont en France intimement et indissociablement liés. Bien que réduite d’année en année par une urbanisation mal maîtrisée, l’agriculture peut et doit contribuer à la préservation et à la restauration de la biodiversité. Il convient pour cela de l’aider, dans le cadre d’approches et d’outils systémiques, à renouer avec des pratiques favorables à la biodiversité, sans toutefois renoncer à sa mission première de production de denrées agricoles et alimentaires dans un contexte de plus en plus concurrentiel. Cette mission est au coeur des préoccupations du ministère en charge de l’agriculture. Elle doit s’exercer en cohérence et en complémentarité, et s’intégrer autant que faire se peut avec les dispositifs élaborés et mis en oeuvre par le ministère en charge de l’écologie et du développement durable.
Environmental compensation "if possible" under the 1976 Act on the Protection of Nature: An obligation for everyone
By Laurent PIERMONT
Ingénieur agronome, docteur en écologie, PDG de la Société Forestière et de CDC Biodiversité
Although the 1976 Act on the Protection of Nature contained a provision about compensation for the loss of biodiversity, it has turned out to be impossible to implement this principle in the opinion of most project managers. CDC Biodiversité, a subsidiary of CDC, has made a commercial offer related to this provision. For CDC Biodiversité, this compensation should be calculated not just in monetary terms but also in terms of “ecological equivalence”. For this company, the concept of compensation must be clarified so as to establish more sustainable relations between economic development and the conservation of ecosystems.
Biodiversity and linear infrastructures: RTE’s contribution to the Blue and Green Corridors
By Jean-François LESIGNE
Attaché Environnement à Réseau de Transport d’Electricité (RTE)
Different transportation networks have, historically, existed together and even overlapped. Down through the centuries, successive civilizations built and expanded networks. For example, aqueducts are existing evidence that the water supply system crossed Roman roads. The canal system was added onto the network of roads, not to mention the addition, in the 19th century, of railways and, in the 20th century, of superhighways, gas pipelines and grids for electricity and telecommunications. Engineers were capable of finding solutions so that these networks crossed each other while maintaining the operation of each. A new network has to be built: the Green and Blue Corridors, a network of waterways and of grass- or woodlands. For this purpose, nature scientists, engineers, developers and legislators must innovate and find solutions for problems which, sometimes complex, will entail studies and experiments. Without waiting for solutions to be found for all these problems, a start must be made on this new network.
3 - Science, industry and biodiversity
Interfaces between the scientific community and society, or the need for a dialog between science and society on issues related to biodiversity
By Hélène LERICHE
Docteur vétérinaire & docteur en écologie
Science tries to understand biodiversity, but biodiversity is an issue for society that concerns several parties who play a part in the future of life and living beings. These parties raise questions about the depletion of biodiversity, but also possess the relevant know-how and possible responses for action and knowledge. Interfaces and dialogs are to be opened or reinforced so that both science and society show concern for biodiversity and help build our future.
Firms, players in biodiversity
By Claire TUTENUIT
Délégué général d’Entreprises pour l’Environnement (EpE)
Most economic activities offer services in the place of those that nature provides but in a too limited quantity or at the cost of too much effort to satisfy all of humanity. Buildings have replaced caves and huts made of branches; hunting and gathering have yielded to farming; and there are cars in the place of horses, and chemicals in the place of natural glues, dyes, drugs, textiles and cosmetics… R&D in industry tries to develop efficient, productive, predictable systems that are easy to reproduce in a steady environment. Does this not signal a natural antinomy between biodiversity and the corporate world ? This paradox is explored herein.
The irreducible diversity of biodiversity indicators
By Denis COUVET
Professeur au Muséum, directeur de l’UMR 7204 MNHN-CNRSUPMC « Conservation des espèces, restauration et suivi des populations », Ingénieur Agronome et habilité à diriger des recherches en écologie et en sciences de l’évolution
A wide range of indicators of biodiversity serves to design and assess public policies, and make different sectors of public opinion aware of issues in this field. Robust indicators that can be applied at the local level are needed to assess each stakeholder’s impact. Combined with indicators of local pressure on resources, such as HANPP (Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production), the description of the current state could meet up to these specifications. Emphasis is laid on the importance of a coordination that involves both experimentation with new indicators and the reaching of an agreement among stakeholders about them. These indicators, rather than being merely descriptive, should characterize processes so that they can enter into simulations. They should assess biodiversity’s reaction to global changes, in other words its adaptative capability. The systems of observation necessary for documenting indicators are of crucial importance; they could be pooled by the parties concerned.
How to expand awareness so that the public adapts its behavior to biodiversity?
By Allain BOUGRAIN-DUBOURG
Président de la Ligue pour la Protection des Oiseaux
Thirty-five years ago, the protection of biodiversity was considered to be a matter for specialists. Nowadays, everyone agrees that our natural heritage will be conserved only if as many people as possible are involved. Besides the mass media, movies, shocking demonstrations and the mobilization of species (such as pandas or baby seals) symbolizing the cause, an essential vector for increasing public awareness of this issue is education and training in environmental studies. Much is yet to be done…
Assessing nature and ecosystems: The case of the United Kingdom
By Jean-Philippe LAFONTAINE
Maître de Conférences, Institut d’Administration des Entreprises de Tours
For the first time in the United Kingdom, the National Ecosystem Assessment (NEA) has carried out a cost/benefit analysis of nature and ecosystems for the development of economic activities and the wellbeing of people. The data thus produced should help us take into account the environment in decision-making at all levels: international, national, local, corporate and individual.